Certain solid materials exhibit electrical conductivity that falls between that of conductors and insulators. These materials are called semiconductors. Examples include silicon and germanium.
Transistor A transistor is an active electronic device composed of p-type and n-type semiconductors. It's used to amplify electrical signals and perform various other functions in electronic circuits. The invention of the transistor revolutionized the electronics industry. It was first invented in 1948 by American scientists Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain. There are two primary types of transistors: (1) P-N-P Transistor (2) N-P-N Transistor (1) P-N-P Transistor - P-N-P transistors consist of a thin n-type semiconductor layer sandwiched between two p-type semiconductor layers. This creates a three-layer structure: the central layer is called the base, the left layer is the emitter, and the right layer is the collector. (figure) (symbol) (2) NPN Transistor: - In N-P-N transistors, a thin layer of p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between two n-type semiconductor layers, forming a three-layer structure. The central layer is called the base, the left layer is the emitte...
Programming A program is a collection of instructions that dictate the behavior of a computer. The CPU processes these instructions, resulting in the desired output. These instructions are written in a specific language known as a programming language. In this chapter, we'll focus on how these languages are used in embedded systems. Later, we'll explore specific programming languages used in this field. Since embedded systems are designed for specific tasks, microcontrollers need to be programmed with instructions relevant to those tasks. For example, a washing machine has a program that controls the motor's rotation (clockwise and anti-clockwise) upon turning it on. Hands-on Learning: To gain a deeper understanding of programming and embedded systems, creating your own project is highly recommended. You can work with a microcontroller module and program it to control a motor's rotation in both directions (clockwise and anti-clockwise). We'll provide further projec...
Microprocessors Initially, computers were built using individual logic gates. This stage is called Small-Scale Integration (SSI). As technology advanced, Medium-Scale Integration (MSI) and Super Large-Scale Integration (SLSI) were developed, allowing the entire CPU to be integrated onto a single chip. This chip, also known as a microprocessor, forms the core of a microcomputer. Today, microprocessors are present in various devices, including computers, smartphones, and tablets. The block diagram above illustrates the basic operation of a CPU. It receives instructions from memory, processes data accordingly, and displays or transmits the result to an output device following the program's instructions. Example: When you enter an instruction like "2 + 2" into the calculator application, the input device transmits this instruction to the CPU. The CPU then processes it and displays the corresponding result (4) on the output device (monitor) or stores it in memory. Main Compon...
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